RustPython/vm/src/exceptions.rs

use crate::builtins::pystr::{PyStr, PyStrRef};
use crate::builtins::pytype::{PyType, PyTypeRef};
use crate::builtins::singletons::{PyNone, PyNoneRef};
use crate::builtins::traceback::PyTracebackRef;
use crate::builtins::tuple::{PyTuple, PyTupleRef};
use crate::common::lock::PyRwLock;
use crate::function::FuncArgs;
use crate::py_io::{self, Write};
use crate::sysmodule;
use crate::types::create_type_with_slots;
use crate::StaticType;
use crate::VirtualMachine;
use crate::{
    IdProtocol, IntoPyObject, PyClassImpl, PyContext, PyIterable, PyObjectRef, PyRef, PyResult,
    PyValue, TryFromObject, TypeProtocol,
};

use crossbeam_utils::atomic::AtomicCell;
use itertools::Itertools;
use std::collections::HashSet;
use std::fmt;
use std::fs::File;
use std::io::{self, BufRead, BufReader};

#[pyclass(module = false, name = "BaseException")]
pub struct PyBaseException {
    traceback: PyRwLock<Option<PyTracebackRef>>,
    cause: PyRwLock<Option<PyBaseExceptionRef>>,
    context: PyRwLock<Option<PyBaseExceptionRef>>,
    suppress_context: AtomicCell<bool>,
    args: PyRwLock<PyTupleRef>,
}

impl fmt::Debug for PyBaseException {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        // TODO: implement more detailed, non-recursive Debug formatter
        f.write_str("PyBaseException")
    }
}

pub type PyBaseExceptionRef = PyRef<PyBaseException>;

pub trait IntoPyException {
    fn into_pyexception(self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyBaseExceptionRef;
}

impl PyValue for PyBaseException {
    fn class(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> &PyTypeRef {
        &vm.ctx.exceptions.base_exception_type
    }
}

#[pyimpl(flags(BASETYPE, HAS_DICT))]
impl PyBaseException {
    pub(crate) fn new(args: Vec<PyObjectRef>, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyBaseException {
        PyBaseException {
            traceback: PyRwLock::new(None),
            cause: PyRwLock::new(None),
            context: PyRwLock::new(None),
            suppress_context: AtomicCell::new(false),
            args: PyRwLock::new(PyTupleRef::with_elements(args, &vm.ctx)),
        }
    }

    #[pyslot]
    pub(crate) fn tp_new(cls: PyTypeRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult {
        PyBaseException::new(args.args, vm).into_pyresult_with_type(vm, cls)
    }

    #[pymethod(magic)]
    pub(crate) fn init(zelf: PyRef<Self>, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
        *zelf.args.write() = PyTupleRef::with_elements(args.args, &vm.ctx);
        Ok(())
    }

    pub fn get_arg(&self, idx: usize) -> Option<PyObjectRef> {
        self.args.read().as_slice().get(idx).cloned()
    }

    #[pyproperty]
    pub fn args(&self) -> PyTupleRef {
        self.args.read().clone()
    }

    #[pyproperty(setter)]
    fn set_args(&self, args: PyIterable, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
        let args = args.iter(vm)?.collect::<PyResult<Vec<_>>>()?;
        *self.args.write() = PyTupleRef::with_elements(args, &vm.ctx);
        Ok(())
    }

    #[pyproperty(magic)]
    pub fn traceback(&self) -> Option<PyTracebackRef> {
        self.traceback.read().clone()
    }

    #[pyproperty(name = "__traceback__", setter)]
    pub fn set_traceback(&self, traceback: Option<PyTracebackRef>) {
        *self.traceback.write() = traceback;
    }

    #[pyproperty(magic)]
    pub fn cause(&self) -> Option<PyBaseExceptionRef> {
        self.cause.read().clone()
    }

    #[pyproperty(name = "__cause__", setter)]
    pub fn set_cause(&self, cause: Option<PyBaseExceptionRef>) {
        let mut c = self.cause.write();
        self.set_suppress_context(true);
        *c = cause;
    }

    #[pyproperty(magic)]
    pub fn context(&self) -> Option<PyBaseExceptionRef> {
        self.context.read().clone()
    }

    #[pyproperty(name = "__context__", setter)]
    pub fn set_context(&self, context: Option<PyBaseExceptionRef>) {
        *self.context.write() = context;
    }

    #[pyproperty(name = "__suppress_context__")]
    fn get_suppress_context(&self) -> bool {
        self.suppress_context.load()
    }

    #[pyproperty(name = "__suppress_context__", setter)]
    fn set_suppress_context(&self, suppress_context: bool) {
        self.suppress_context.store(suppress_context);
    }

    #[pymethod]
    fn with_traceback(zelf: PyRef<Self>, tb: Option<PyTracebackRef>) -> PyResult {
        *zelf.traceback.write() = tb;
        Ok(zelf.as_object().clone())
    }

    #[pymethod(magic)]
    fn str(&self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyStrRef {
        let str_args = exception_args_as_string(vm, self.args(), true);
        match str_args.into_iter().exactly_one() {
            Err(i) if i.len() == 0 => PyStr::from("").into_ref(vm),
            Ok(s) => s,
            Err(i) => PyStr::from(format!("({})", i.format(", "))).into_ref(vm),
        }
    }

    #[pymethod(magic)]
    fn repr(zelf: PyRef<Self>, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> String {
        let repr_args = exception_args_as_string(vm, zelf.args(), false);
        let cls = zelf.class();
        format!("{}({})", cls.name(), repr_args.iter().format(", "))
    }
}

pub fn chain<T>(e1: PyResult<()>, e2: PyResult<T>) -> PyResult<T> {
    match (e1, e2) {
        (Err(e1), Err(e)) => {
            e.set_context(Some(e1));
            Err(e)
        }
        (Err(e), Ok(_)) | (Ok(()), Err(e)) => Err(e),
        (Ok(()), Ok(close_res)) => Ok(close_res),
    }
}

/// Print exception chain by calling sys.excepthook
pub fn print_exception(vm: &VirtualMachine, exc: PyBaseExceptionRef) {
    let write_fallback = |exc, errstr| {
        if let Ok(stderr) = sysmodule::get_stderr(vm) {
            let mut stderr = py_io::PyWriter(stderr, vm);
            // if this fails stderr might be closed -- ignore it
            let _ = writeln!(stderr, "{}", errstr);
            let _ = write_exception(&mut stderr, vm, exc);
        } else {
            eprintln!("{}\nlost sys.stderr", errstr);
            let _ = write_exception(&mut py_io::IoWriter(io::stderr()), vm, exc);
        }
    };
    if let Ok(excepthook) = vm.get_attribute(vm.sys_module.clone(), "excepthook") {
        let (exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb) = split(exc.clone(), vm);
        if let Err(eh_exc) = vm.invoke(&excepthook, vec![exc_type, exc_val, exc_tb]) {
            write_fallback(&eh_exc, "Error in sys.excepthook:");
            write_fallback(&exc, "Original exception was:");
        }
    } else {
        write_fallback(&exc, "missing sys.excepthook");
    }
}

pub fn write_exception<W: Write>(
    output: &mut W,
    vm: &VirtualMachine,
    exc: &PyBaseExceptionRef,
) -> Result<(), W::Error> {
    let seen = &mut HashSet::<usize>::new();
    write_exception_recursive(output, vm, exc, seen)
}

fn print_source_line<W: Write>(
    output: &mut W,
    filename: &str,
    lineno: usize,
) -> Result<(), W::Error> {
    // TODO: use io.open() method instead, when available, according to https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Python/traceback.c#L393
    // TODO: support different encodings
    let file = match File::open(filename) {
        Ok(file) => file,
        Err(_) => return Ok(()),
    };
    let file = BufReader::new(file);

    for (i, line) in file.lines().enumerate() {
        if i + 1 == lineno {
            if let Ok(line) = line {
                // Indented with 4 spaces
                writeln!(output, "    {}", line.trim_start())?;
            }
            return Ok(());
        }
    }

    Ok(())
}

/// Print exception occurrence location from traceback element
fn write_traceback_entry<W: Write>(
    output: &mut W,
    tb_entry: &PyTracebackRef,
) -> Result<(), W::Error> {
    let filename = tb_entry.frame.code.source_path.as_str();
    writeln!(
        output,
        r##"  File "{}", line {}, in {}"##,
        filename, tb_entry.lineno, tb_entry.frame.code.obj_name
    )?;
    print_source_line(output, filename, tb_entry.lineno)?;

    Ok(())
}

fn write_exception_recursive<W: Write>(
    output: &mut W,
    vm: &VirtualMachine,
    exc: &PyBaseExceptionRef,
    seen: &mut HashSet<usize>,
) -> Result<(), W::Error> {
    // This function should not be called directly,
    // use `wite_exception` as a public interface.
    // It is similar to `print_exception_recursive` from `CPython`.
    seen.insert(exc.as_object().get_id());

    #[allow(clippy::manual_map)]
    if let Some((cause_or_context, msg)) = if let Some(cause) = exc.cause() {
        // This can be a special case: `raise e from e`,
        // we just ignore it and treat like `raise e` without any extra steps.
        Some((
            cause,
            "\nThe above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:\n",
        ))
    } else if let Some(context) = exc.context() {
        // This can be a special case:
        //   e = ValueError('e')
        //   e.__context__ = e
        // In this case, we just ignore
        // `__context__` part from going into recursion.
        Some((
            context,
            "\nDuring handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:\n",
        ))
    } else {
        None
    } {
        if !seen.contains(&cause_or_context.as_object().get_id()) {
            write_exception_recursive(output, vm, &cause_or_context, seen)?;
            writeln!(output, "{}", msg)?;
        } else {
            seen.insert(cause_or_context.as_object().get_id());
        }
    }

    write_exception_inner(output, vm, exc)
}

/// Print exception with traceback
pub fn write_exception_inner<W: Write>(
    output: &mut W,
    vm: &VirtualMachine,
    exc: &PyBaseExceptionRef,
) -> Result<(), W::Error> {
    if let Some(tb) = exc.traceback.read().clone() {
        writeln!(output, "Traceback (most recent call last):")?;
        for tb in tb.iter() {
            write_traceback_entry(output, &tb)?;
        }
    }

    let varargs = exc.args();
    let args_repr = exception_args_as_string(vm, varargs, true);

    let exc_name = exc.class().name();
    match args_repr.len() {
        0 => writeln!(output, "{}", exc_name),
        1 => writeln!(output, "{}: {}", exc_name, args_repr[0]),
        _ => writeln!(
            output,
            "{}: ({})",
            exc_name,
            args_repr.into_iter().format(", ")
        ),
    }
}

fn exception_args_as_string(
    vm: &VirtualMachine,
    varargs: PyTupleRef,
    str_single: bool,
) -> Vec<PyStrRef> {
    let varargs = varargs.as_slice();
    match varargs.len() {
        0 => vec![],
        1 => {
            let args0_repr = if str_single {
                vm.to_str(&varargs[0])
                    .unwrap_or_else(|_| PyStr::from("<element str() failed>").into_ref(vm))
            } else {
                vm.to_repr(&varargs[0])
                    .unwrap_or_else(|_| PyStr::from("<element repr() failed>").into_ref(vm))
            };
            vec![args0_repr]
        }
        _ => varargs
            .iter()
            .map(|vararg| {
                vm.to_repr(vararg)
                    .unwrap_or_else(|_| PyStr::from("<element repr() failed>").into_ref(vm))
            })
            .collect(),
    }
}

#[derive(Clone)]
pub enum ExceptionCtor {
    Class(PyTypeRef),
    Instance(PyBaseExceptionRef),
}

impl TryFromObject for ExceptionCtor {
    fn try_from_object(vm: &VirtualMachine, obj: PyObjectRef) -> PyResult<Self> {
        obj.downcast::<PyType>()
            .and_then(|cls| {
                if cls.issubclass(&vm.ctx.exceptions.base_exception_type) {
                    Ok(Self::Class(cls))
                } else {
                    Err(cls.into_object())
                }
            })
            .or_else(|obj| obj.downcast::<PyBaseException>().map(Self::Instance))
            .map_err(|obj| {
                vm.new_type_error(format!(
                    "exceptions must be classes or instances deriving from BaseException, not {}",
                    obj.class().name()
                ))
            })
    }
}

pub fn invoke(
    cls: PyTypeRef,
    args: Vec<PyObjectRef>,
    vm: &VirtualMachine,
) -> PyResult<PyBaseExceptionRef> {
    // TODO: fast-path built-in exceptions by directly instantiating them? Is that really worth it?
    let res = vm.invoke(cls.as_object(), args)?;
    PyBaseExceptionRef::try_from_object(vm, res)
}

impl ExceptionCtor {
    pub fn instantiate(self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<PyBaseExceptionRef> {
        match self {
            Self::Class(cls) => invoke(cls, vec![], vm),
            Self::Instance(exc) => Ok(exc),
        }
    }

    pub fn instantiate_value(
        self,
        value: PyObjectRef,
        vm: &VirtualMachine,
    ) -> PyResult<PyBaseExceptionRef> {
        let exc_inst = value.clone().downcast::<PyBaseException>().ok();
        match (self, exc_inst) {
            // both are instances; which would we choose?
            (Self::Instance(_exc_a), Some(_exc_b)) => {
                Err(vm
                    .new_type_error("instance exception may not have a separate value".to_owned()))
            }
            // if the "type" is an instance and the value isn't, use the "type"
            (Self::Instance(exc), None) => Ok(exc),
            // if the value is an instance of the type, use the instance value
            (Self::Class(cls), Some(exc)) if exc.isinstance(&cls) => Ok(exc),
            // otherwise; construct an exception of the type using the value as args
            (Self::Class(cls), _) => {
                let args = match_class!(match value {
                    PyNone => vec![],
                    tup @ PyTuple => tup.as_slice().to_vec(),
                    exc @ PyBaseException => exc.args().as_slice().to_vec(),
                    obj => vec![obj],
                });
                invoke(cls, args, vm)
            }
        }
    }
}

pub fn split(
    exc: PyBaseExceptionRef,
    vm: &VirtualMachine,
) -> (PyObjectRef, PyObjectRef, PyObjectRef) {
    let tb = exc.traceback().into_pyobject(vm);
    (exc.clone_class().into_object(), exc.into_object(), tb)
}

/// Similar to PyErr_NormalizeException in CPython
pub fn normalize(
    exc_type: PyObjectRef,
    exc_val: PyObjectRef,
    exc_tb: PyObjectRef,
    vm: &VirtualMachine,
) -> PyResult<PyBaseExceptionRef> {
    let ctor = ExceptionCtor::try_from_object(vm, exc_type)?;
    let exc = ctor.instantiate_value(exc_val, vm)?;
    if let Some(tb) = Option::<PyTracebackRef>::try_from_object(vm, exc_tb)? {
        exc.set_traceback(Some(tb));
    }
    Ok(exc)
}

#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
pub struct ExceptionZoo {
    pub base_exception_type: PyTypeRef,
    pub system_exit: PyTypeRef,
    pub keyboard_interrupt: PyTypeRef,
    pub generator_exit: PyTypeRef,
    pub exception_type: PyTypeRef,
    pub stop_iteration: PyTypeRef,
    pub stop_async_iteration: PyTypeRef,
    pub arithmetic_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub floating_point_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub overflow_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub zero_division_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub assertion_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub attribute_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub buffer_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub eof_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub import_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub module_not_found_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub lookup_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub index_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub key_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub memory_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub name_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub unbound_local_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub os_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub blocking_io_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub child_process_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub connection_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub broken_pipe_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub connection_aborted_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub connection_refused_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub connection_reset_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub file_exists_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub file_not_found_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub interrupted_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub is_a_directory_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub not_a_directory_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub permission_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub process_lookup_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub timeout_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub reference_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub runtime_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub not_implemented_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub recursion_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub syntax_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub target_scope_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub indentation_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub tab_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub system_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub type_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub value_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub unicode_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub unicode_decode_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub unicode_encode_error: PyTypeRef,
    pub unicode_translate_error: PyTypeRef,

    #[cfg(feature = "jit")]
    pub jit_error: PyTypeRef,

    pub warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub deprecation_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub pending_deprecation_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub runtime_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub syntax_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub user_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub future_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub import_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub unicode_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub bytes_warning: PyTypeRef,
    pub resource_warning: PyTypeRef,
}

pub fn exception_slots() -> crate::slots::PyTypeSlots {
    let mut slots = PyBaseException::make_slots();
    // make_slots produces it with a tp_name of BaseException, which is usually wrong
    slots.name.get_mut().take();
    slots
}

pub fn create_exception_type(name: &str, base: &PyTypeRef) -> PyTypeRef {
    create_type_with_slots(name, PyType::static_type(), base, exception_slots())
}

/// This macro serves a goal of generating multiple BaseException / Exception
/// subtypes in a uniform and convenient manner.
/// It looks like `SimpleExtendsException` in `CPython`.
/// https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Objects/exceptions.c
///
/// We need `ctx` to be ready to add `properties` / `custom` constructors / slots / etc.
/// So, we use `extend_class!` macro as the second step in exception type definition.
macro_rules! extends_exception {
    (
        $class_name: ident,
        $base_class: ident,
        $ctx_name: ident,
        $docs: tt
    ) => {
        #[pyexception($class_name, $base_class)]
        #[derive(Debug)]
        #[doc = $docs]
        struct $class_name {}

        // We need this to make extend mechanism work:
        impl PyValue for $class_name {
            fn class(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> &PyTypeRef {
                &vm.ctx.exceptions.$ctx_name
            }
        }

        #[pyimpl(flags(BASETYPE, HAS_DICT))]
        impl $class_name {
            #[pyslot]
            fn tp_new(cls: PyTypeRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult {
                // We need this method, because of how `CPython` copies `init`
                // from `BaseException` in `SimpleExtendsException` macro.
                // See: `BaseException_new`
                PyBaseException::tp_new(cls, args, vm)
            }

            #[pymethod(magic)]
            fn init(
                zelf: PyRef<PyBaseException>,
                args: FuncArgs,
                vm: &VirtualMachine,
            ) -> PyResult<()> {
                // We need this method, because of how `CPython` copies `init`
                // from `BaseException` in `SimpleExtendsException` macro.
                // See: `(initproc)BaseException_init`
                $base_class::init(zelf, args, vm)
            }
        }
    };
}

// Exception types that extend `BaseException`,
// sorted the same way CPython does.

extends_exception! {
    PyException,
    PyBaseException,
    exception_type,
    "Common base class for all non-exit exceptions."
}

extends_exception! {
    PyGeneratorExit,
    PyBaseException,
    generator_exit,
    "Request that a generator exit."
}

extends_exception! {
    PySystemExit,
    PyBaseException,
    system_exit,
    "Request to exit from the interpreter."
}

extends_exception! {
    PyKeyboardInterrupt,
    PyBaseException,
    keyboard_interrupt,
    "Program interrupted by user."
}

// Exception types that extend `Exception`,
// sorted the same way CPython does.

extends_exception! {
    PyTypeError,
    PyException,
    type_error,
    "Inappropriate argument type."
}

extends_exception! {
    PyStopAsyncIteration,
    PyException,
    stop_async_iteration,
    "Signal the end from iterator.__anext__()."
}

extends_exception! {
    PyStopIteration,
    PyException,
    stop_iteration,
    "Signal the end from iterator.__next__()."
}

extends_exception! {
    PyOSError,
    PyException,
    os_error,
    "Base class for I/O related errors."
}

macro_rules! extend_exception {
    ( $ctx:expr, $class:expr, { $($name:expr => $value:expr),* $(,)* }) => {
        $class.set_str_attr("__new__", $ctx.new_method("__new__", $class.clone(), PyBaseException::tp_new));
        $class.set_str_attr("__init__", $ctx.new_method("__init__", $class.clone(), PyBaseException::init));

        extend_class!($ctx, $class, {
            $(
                $name => $value,
            )*
        });
    };
}

impl ExceptionZoo {
    pub(crate) fn init() -> Self {
        // The same order as definitions:
        let base_exception_type = PyBaseException::init_bare_type().clone();
        let exception_type = PyException::init_bare_type().clone();

        let system_exit = PySystemExit::init_bare_type().clone();
        let keyboard_interrupt = PyKeyboardInterrupt::init_bare_type().clone();
        let generator_exit = PyGeneratorExit::init_bare_type().clone();

        let stop_iteration = PyStopIteration::init_bare_type().clone();
        let stop_async_iteration = PyStopAsyncIteration::init_bare_type().clone();
        let arithmetic_error = create_exception_type("ArithmeticError", &exception_type);
        let floating_point_error = create_exception_type("FloatingPointError", &arithmetic_error);
        let overflow_error = create_exception_type("OverflowError", &arithmetic_error);
        let zero_division_error = create_exception_type("ZeroDivisionError", &arithmetic_error);
        let assertion_error = create_exception_type("AssertionError", &exception_type);
        let attribute_error = create_exception_type("AttributeError", &exception_type);
        let buffer_error = create_exception_type("BufferError", &exception_type);
        let eof_error = create_exception_type("EOFError", &exception_type);
        let import_error = create_exception_type("ImportError", &exception_type);
        let module_not_found_error = create_exception_type("ModuleNotFoundError", &import_error);
        let lookup_error = create_exception_type("LookupError", &exception_type);
        let index_error = create_exception_type("IndexError", &lookup_error);
        let key_error = create_exception_type("KeyError", &lookup_error);
        let memory_error = create_exception_type("MemoryError", &exception_type);
        let name_error = create_exception_type("NameError", &exception_type);
        let unbound_local_error = create_exception_type("UnboundLocalError", &name_error);

        // os errors
        let os_error = PyOSError::init_bare_type().clone();
        let blocking_io_error = create_exception_type("BlockingIOError", &os_error);
        let child_process_error = create_exception_type("ChildProcessError", &os_error);
        let connection_error = create_exception_type("ConnectionError", &os_error);
        let connection_aborted_error =
            create_exception_type("ConnectionAbortedError", &connection_error);
        let connection_refused_error =
            create_exception_type("ConnectionRefusedError", &connection_error);
        let connection_reset_error =
            create_exception_type("ConnectionResetError", &connection_error);
        let file_exists_error = create_exception_type("FileExistsError", &os_error);
        let file_not_found_error = create_exception_type("FileNotFoundError", &os_error);
        let interrupted_error = create_exception_type("InterruptedError", &os_error);
        let is_a_directory_error = create_exception_type("IsADirectoryError", &os_error);
        let not_a_directory_error = create_exception_type("NotADirectoryError", &os_error);
        let broken_pipe_error = create_exception_type("BrokenPipeError", &connection_error);
        let permission_error = create_exception_type("PermissionError", &os_error);
        let process_lookup_error = create_exception_type("ProcessLookupError", &os_error);
        let timeout_error = create_exception_type("TimeoutError", &os_error);

        let reference_error = create_exception_type("ReferenceError", &exception_type);
        let runtime_error = create_exception_type("RuntimeError", &exception_type);
        let not_implemented_error = create_exception_type("NotImplementedError", &runtime_error);
        let recursion_error = create_exception_type("RecursionError", &runtime_error);
        let syntax_error = create_exception_type("SyntaxError", &exception_type);
        let indentation_error = create_exception_type("IndentationError", &syntax_error);
        let tab_error = create_exception_type("TabError", &indentation_error);
        let target_scope_error = create_exception_type("TargetScopeError", &syntax_error);
        let system_error = create_exception_type("SystemError", &exception_type);
        let type_error = PyTypeError::init_bare_type().clone();
        let value_error = create_exception_type("ValueError", &exception_type);
        let unicode_error = create_exception_type("UnicodeError", &value_error);
        let unicode_decode_error = create_exception_type("UnicodeDecodeError", &unicode_error);
        let unicode_encode_error = create_exception_type("UnicodeEncodeError", &unicode_error);
        let unicode_translate_error =
            create_exception_type("UnicodeTranslateError", &unicode_error);

        #[cfg(feature = "jit")]
        let jit_error = create_exception_type("JitError", &exception_type);

        let warning = create_exception_type("Warning", &exception_type);
        let deprecation_warning = create_exception_type("DeprecationWarning", &warning);
        let pending_deprecation_warning =
            create_exception_type("PendingDeprecationWarning", &warning);
        let runtime_warning = create_exception_type("RuntimeWarning", &warning);
        let syntax_warning = create_exception_type("SyntaxWarning", &warning);
        let user_warning = create_exception_type("UserWarning", &warning);
        let future_warning = create_exception_type("FutureWarning", &warning);
        let import_warning = create_exception_type("ImportWarning", &warning);
        let unicode_warning = create_exception_type("UnicodeWarning", &warning);
        let bytes_warning = create_exception_type("BytesWarning", &warning);
        let resource_warning = create_exception_type("ResourceWarning", &warning);

        Self {
            base_exception_type,
            system_exit,
            keyboard_interrupt,
            generator_exit,
            exception_type,
            stop_iteration,
            stop_async_iteration,
            arithmetic_error,
            floating_point_error,
            overflow_error,
            zero_division_error,
            assertion_error,
            attribute_error,
            buffer_error,
            eof_error,
            import_error,
            module_not_found_error,
            lookup_error,
            index_error,
            key_error,
            memory_error,
            name_error,
            unbound_local_error,
            os_error,
            blocking_io_error,
            child_process_error,
            connection_error,
            broken_pipe_error,
            connection_aborted_error,
            connection_refused_error,
            connection_reset_error,
            file_exists_error,
            file_not_found_error,
            interrupted_error,
            is_a_directory_error,
            not_a_directory_error,
            permission_error,
            process_lookup_error,
            timeout_error,
            reference_error,
            runtime_error,
            not_implemented_error,
            recursion_error,
            syntax_error,
            target_scope_error,
            indentation_error,
            tab_error,
            system_error,
            type_error,
            value_error,
            unicode_error,
            unicode_decode_error,
            unicode_encode_error,
            unicode_translate_error,

            #[cfg(feature = "jit")]
            jit_error,

            warning,
            deprecation_warning,
            pending_deprecation_warning,
            runtime_warning,
            syntax_warning,
            user_warning,
            future_warning,
            import_warning,
            unicode_warning,
            bytes_warning,
            resource_warning,
        }
    }

    pub fn extend(ctx: &PyContext) {
        let excs = &ctx.exceptions;

        PyBaseException::extend_class(ctx, &excs.base_exception_type);
        PyException::extend_class(ctx, &excs.exception_type);

        PyGeneratorExit::extend_class(ctx, &excs.generator_exit);
        PySystemExit::extend_class(ctx, &excs.system_exit);
        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.system_exit, {
            "code" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("code", excs.system_exit.clone(), system_exit_code),
        });
        PyKeyboardInterrupt::extend_class(ctx, &excs.keyboard_interrupt);

        PyTypeError::extend_class(ctx, &excs.type_error);
        PyStopAsyncIteration::extend_class(ctx, &excs.stop_async_iteration);
        PyStopIteration::extend_class(ctx, &excs.stop_iteration);
        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.stop_iteration, {
            "value" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("value", excs.stop_iteration.clone(), make_arg_getter(0)),
        });

        extend_exception!(ctx, &excs.arithmetic_error, {});

        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.syntax_error, {
            "msg" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("msg", excs.syntax_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(0)),
            // TODO: members
            "filename" => ctx.none(),
            "lineno" => ctx.none(),
            "offset" => ctx.none(),
            "text" => ctx.none(),
        });

        extend_exception!(ctx, &excs.import_error, {
            "__init__" => ctx.new_method("__init__", excs.import_error.clone(), import_error_init),
            "msg" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("msg", excs.import_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(0)),
        });

        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.key_error, {
            "__str__" => ctx.new_method("__str__", excs.key_error.clone(), key_error_str),
        });

        PyOSError::extend_class(ctx, &excs.os_error);
        let errno_getter =
            ctx.new_readonly_getset("errno", excs.os_error.clone(), |exc: PyBaseExceptionRef| {
                let args = exc.args();
                let args = args.as_slice();
                args.get(0).filter(|_| args.len() > 1).cloned()
            });
        #[cfg(windows)]
        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.os_error, {
            // TODO: this isn't really accurate
            "winerror" => errno_getter.clone(),
        });
        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.os_error, {
            "errno" => errno_getter,
            "strerror" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("strerror", excs.os_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(1)),
        });

        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.unicode_decode_error, {
            "encoding" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("encoding", excs.unicode_decode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(0)),
            "object" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("object", excs.unicode_decode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(1)),
            "start" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("start", excs.unicode_decode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(2)),
            "end" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("end", excs.unicode_decode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(3)),
            "reason" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("reason", excs.unicode_decode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(4)),
        });

        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.unicode_encode_error, {
            "encoding" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("encoding", excs.unicode_encode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(0)),
            "object" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("object", excs.unicode_encode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(1)),
            "start" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("start", excs.unicode_encode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(2), ),
            "end" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("end", excs.unicode_encode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(3)),
            "reason" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("reason", excs.unicode_encode_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(4)),
        });

        extend_class!(ctx, &excs.unicode_translate_error, {
            "encoding" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("encoding", excs.unicode_translate_error.clone(), none_getter),
            "object" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("object", excs.unicode_translate_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(0)),
            "start" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("start", excs.unicode_translate_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(1)),
            "end" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("end", excs.unicode_translate_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(2)),
            "reason" => ctx.new_readonly_getset("reason", excs.unicode_translate_error.clone(), make_arg_getter(3)),
        });
    }
}

fn import_error_init(exc_self: PyObjectRef, args: FuncArgs, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyResult<()> {
    vm.set_attr(
        &exc_self,
        "name",
        vm.unwrap_or_none(args.kwargs.get("name").cloned()),
    )?;
    vm.set_attr(
        &exc_self,
        "path",
        vm.unwrap_or_none(args.kwargs.get("path").cloned()),
    )?;
    Ok(())
}

fn none_getter(_obj: PyObjectRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyNoneRef {
    vm.ctx.none.clone()
}

fn make_arg_getter(idx: usize) -> impl Fn(PyBaseExceptionRef) -> Option<PyObjectRef> {
    move |exc| exc.get_arg(idx)
}

fn key_error_str(exc: PyBaseExceptionRef, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyStrRef {
    let args = exc.args();
    if args.as_slice().len() == 1 {
        exception_args_as_string(vm, args, false)
            .into_iter()
            .exactly_one()
            .unwrap()
    } else {
        exc.str(vm)
    }
}

fn system_exit_code(exc: PyBaseExceptionRef) -> Option<PyObjectRef> {
    exc.args.read().as_slice().first().map(|code| {
        match_class!(match code {
            ref tup @ PyTuple => match tup.as_slice() {
                [x] => x.clone(),
                _ => code.clone(),
            },
            other => other.clone(),
        })
    })
}

pub struct SerializeException<'s> {
    vm: &'s VirtualMachine,
    exc: &'s PyBaseExceptionRef,
}

impl<'s> SerializeException<'s> {
    pub fn new(vm: &'s VirtualMachine, exc: &'s PyBaseExceptionRef) -> Self {
        SerializeException { vm, exc }
    }
}

impl serde::Serialize for SerializeException<'_> {
    fn serialize<S: serde::Serializer>(&self, s: S) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error> {
        use serde::ser::*;

        let mut struc = s.serialize_struct("PyBaseException", 7)?;
        struc.serialize_field("exc_type", &self.exc.class().name())?;
        let tbs = {
            struct Tracebacks(PyTracebackRef);
            impl serde::Serialize for Tracebacks {
                fn serialize<S: serde::Serializer>(&self, s: S) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error> {
                    let mut s = s.serialize_seq(None)?;
                    for tb in self.0.iter() {
                        s.serialize_element(&*tb)?;
                    }
                    s.end()
                }
            }
            self.exc.traceback().map(Tracebacks)
        };
        struc.serialize_field("traceback", &tbs)?;
        struc.serialize_field(
            "cause",
            &self.exc.cause().as_ref().map(|e| Self::new(self.vm, e)),
        )?;
        struc.serialize_field(
            "context",
            &self.exc.context().as_ref().map(|e| Self::new(self.vm, e)),
        )?;
        struc.serialize_field("suppress_context", &self.exc.get_suppress_context())?;

        let args = {
            struct Args<'vm>(&'vm VirtualMachine, PyTupleRef);
            impl serde::Serialize for Args<'_> {
                fn serialize<S: serde::Serializer>(&self, s: S) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error> {
                    s.collect_seq(
                        self.1
                            .as_slice()
                            .iter()
                            .map(|arg| crate::py_serde::PyObjectSerializer::new(self.0, arg)),
                    )
                }
            }
            Args(self.vm, self.exc.args())
        };
        struc.serialize_field("args", &args)?;

        let rendered = {
            let mut rendered = String::new();
            write_exception(&mut rendered, self.vm, self.exc).map_err(S::Error::custom)?;
            rendered
        };
        struc.serialize_field("rendered", &rendered)?;

        struc.end()
    }
}

pub(crate) fn cstring_error(vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyBaseExceptionRef {
    vm.new_value_error("embedded null character".to_owned())
}

impl IntoPyException for std::ffi::NulError {
    fn into_pyexception(self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyBaseExceptionRef {
        cstring_error(vm)
    }
}

#[cfg(windows)]
impl<C: widestring::UChar> IntoPyException for widestring::NulError<C> {
    fn into_pyexception(self, vm: &VirtualMachine) -> PyBaseExceptionRef {
        cstring_error(vm)
    }
}